国际会计准则

国际会计准则http://blog.esnai.com/cfinance/category/16860.html国际会计准则zzhg1zh-CHS.Text Version 0.958.2004.214zzhg1《国际会计准则第12号：所得税》（最新英文版）http://blog.esnai.com/cfinance/archive/2007/09/02/209243.htmlSun, 02 Sep 2007 05:47:00 GMThttp://blog.esnai.com/cfinance/archive/2007/09/02/209243.htmlhttp://blog.esnai.com/cfinance/comments/209243.htmlhttp://blog.esnai.com/cfinance/archive/2007/09/02/209243.html#Feedback0http://blog.esnai.com/cfinance/comments/commentRss/209243.htmlhttp://blog.esnai.com/cfinance/services/trackbacks/209243.html《国际会计准则第12号：所得税》（最新英文版） IAS 12 International Accounting Standard 12 ：Income Taxes This version includes amendments resulting from IFRSs issued up to 31 December 2006. IAS 12 Income Taxes was issued by the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) in October 1996. It replaced IAS 12 Accounting for Taxes on Income (issued in July 1979). In May 1999 paragraph 88 was amended by IAS 10 Events After the Balance Sheet and in April 2000 further amendments were made as a consequence of IAS 40 Investment Property. In October 2000 IASC approved revisions to specify the accounting treatment for income tax consequences of dividends. In April 2001 the International Accounting Standards Board resolved that all Standards and Interpretations issued under previous Constitutions continued to be applicable unless and until they were amended or withdrawn. Since then, IAS 12 has been amended by the following pronouncements:  IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements (issued December 2003) . IAS 8 Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors (issued December 2003) . IAS 21 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates (issued December 2003) . IAS 39 Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement (issued December 2003) . IFRS 2 Share-based Payment (issued February 2004) . IFRS 3 Business Combinations (issued March 2004). The following Interpretations refer to IAS 12:  SIC-21 Income Taxes—Recovery of Revalued Non-Depreciable Assets (issued July 2000) . SIC-25 Income Taxes—Changes in the Tax Status of an Entity or its Shareholders (issued July 2000) . IFRIC 7 Applying the Restatement Approach under IAS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies (issued November 2005). IAS 12 Introduction IN1 This Standard (‘IAS 12 (revised)’) replaces IAS 12 Accounting for Taxes on Income (‘the original IAS 12’). IAS 12 (revised) is effective for accounting periods beginning on or after 1 January 1998. The major changes from the original IAS 12 are as follows. IN2 The original IAS 12 required an entity to account for deferred tax using either the deferral method or a liability method which is sometimes known as the income statement liability method. IAS 12 (revised) prohibits the deferral method and requires another liability method which is sometimes known as the balance sheet liability method. The income statement liability method focuses on timing differences, whereas the balance sheet liability method focuses on temporary differences. Timing differences are differences between taxable profit and accounting profit that originate in one period and reverse in one or more subsequent periods. Temporary differences are differences between the tax base of an asset or liability and its carrying amount in the balance sheet. The tax base of an asset or liability is the amount attributed to that asset or liability for tax purposes. All timing differences are temporary differences. Temporary differences also arise in the following circumstances, which do not give rise to timing differences, although the original IAS 12 treated them in the same way as transactions that do give rise to timing differences: (a) subsidiaries, associates or joint ventures have not distributed their entire profits to the parent or investor; (b) assets are revalued and no equivalent adjustment is made for tax purposes; and (c) the cost of a business combination is allocated to the identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed by reference to their fair values, but no equivalent adjustment is made for tax purposes. Furthermore, there are some temporary differences which are not timing differences, for example those temporary differences that arise when: (a) the non-monetary assets and liabilities of an entity are measured in its functional currency but the taxable profit or tax loss (and, hence, the tax base of its non-monetary assets and liabilities) is determined in a different currency; (b) non-monetary assets and liabilities are restated under IAS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies; or (c) the carrying amount of an asset or liability on initial recognition differs from its initial tax base. IN3 The original IAS 12 permitted an entity not to recognise deferred tax assets and liabilities where there was reasonable evidence that timing differences would not reverse for some considerable period ahead. IAS 12 (revised) requires an entity to recognise a deferred tax liability or (subject to certain conditions) asset for all temporary differences, with certain exceptions noted below. IN4 The original IAS 12 required that: (a) deferred tax assets arising from timing differences should be recognised when there was a reasonable expectation of realisation; and (b) deferred tax assets arising from tax losses should be recognised as an asset only where there was assurance beyond any reasonable doubt that future taxable income would be sufficient to allow the benefit of the loss to be realised. The original IAS 12 permitted (but did not require) an entity to defer recognition of the benefit of tax losses until the period of realisation. IAS 12 (revised) requires that deferred tax assets should be recognised when it is probable that taxable profits will be available against which the deferred tax asset can be utilised. Where an entity has a history of tax losses, the entity recognises a deferred tax asset only to the extent that the entity has sufficient taxable temporary differences or there is convincing other evidence that sufficient taxable profit will be available. IN5 As an exception to the general requirement set out in paragraph IN3 above, IAS 12 (revised) prohibits the recognition of deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets arising from certain assets or liabilities whose carrying amount differs on initial recognition from their initial tax base. Because such circumstances do not give rise to timing differences, they did not result in deferred tax assets or liabilities under the original IAS 12. IN6 The original IAS 12 required that taxes payable on undistributed profits of subsidiaries and associates should be recognised unless it was reasonable to assume that those profits will not be distributed or that a distribution would not give rise to a tax liability. However, IAS 12 (revised) prohibits the recognition of such deferred tax liabilities (and those arising from any related cumulative translation adjustment) to the extent that: (a) the parent, investor or venturer is able to control the timing of the reversal of the temporary difference; and (b) it is probable that the temporary difference will not reverse in the foreseeable future. Where this prohibition has the result that no deferred tax liabilities have been recognised, IAS 12 (revised) requires an entity to disclose the aggregate amount of the temporary differences concerned. IN7 The original IAS 12 did not refer explicitly to fair value adjustments made on a business combination. Such adjustments give rise to temporary differences and IAS 12 (revised) requires an entity to recognise the resulting deferred tax liability or (subject to the probability criterion for recognition) deferred tax asset with a corresponding effect on the determination of the amount of goodwill or any excess of the acquirer’s interest in the net fair value of the acquiree’s identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities over the cost of the combination. However, IAS 12 (revised) prohibits the recognition of deferred tax liabilities arising from the initial recognition of goodwill. IN8 The original IAS 12 permitted, but did not require, an entity to recognise a deferred tax liability in respect of asset revaluations. IAS 12 (revised) requires an entity to recognise a deferred tax liability in respect of asset revaluations. IN9 The tax consequences of recovering the carrying amount of certain assets or liabilities may depend on the manner of recovery or settlement, for example: (a) in certain countries, capital gains are not taxed at the same rate as other taxable income; and (b) in some countries, the amount that is deducted for tax purposes on sale of an asset is greater than the amount that may be deducted as depreciation. The original IAS 12 gave no guidance on the measurement of deferred tax assets and liabilities in such cases. IAS 12 (revised) requires that the measurement of deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets should be based on the tax consequences that would follow from the manner in which the entity expects to recover or settle the carrying amount of its assets and liabilities. IN10 The original IAS 12 did not state explicitly whether deferred tax assets and liabilities may be discounted. IAS 12 (revised) prohibits discounting of deferred tax assets and liabilities. Paragraph B16(i) of IFRS 3 Business Combinations prohibits discounting of deferred tax assets acquired and deferred tax liabilities assumed in a business combination. IN11 The original IAS 12 did not specify whether an entity should classify deferred tax balances as current assets and liabilities or as non-current assets and liabilities. IAS 12 (revised) requires that an entity which makes the current/non-current distinction should not classify deferred tax assets and liabilities as current assets and liabilities.* IN12 The original IAS 12 stated that debit and credit balances representing deferred taxes may be offset. IAS 12 (revised) establishes more restrictive conditions on offsetting, based largely on those for financial assets and liabilities in IAS 32 Financial Instruments: Disclosure and Presentation.. IN13 The original IAS 12 required disclosure of an explanation of the relationship between tax expense and accounting profit if not explained by the tax rates effective in the reporting entity’s country. IAS 12 (revised) requires this explanation to take either or both of the following forms: (a) a numerical reconciliation between tax expense (income) and the product of accounting profit multiplied by the applicable tax rate(s); or (b) a numerical reconciliation between the average effective tax rate and the applicable tax rate. * This requirement has been moved to paragraph 70 of IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements. . In 2005 the IASB amended IAS 32 as Financial Instruments: Presentation. IAS 12 (revised) also requires an explanation of changes in the applicable tax rate(s) compared to the previous accounting period. IN14 New disclosures required by IAS 12 (revised) include: (a) in respect of each type of temporary difference, unused tax losses and unused tax credits: (i) the amount of deferred tax assets and liabilities recognised; and (ii) the amount of the deferred tax income or expense recognised in the income statement, if this is not apparent from the changes in the amounts recognised in the balance sheet; (b) in respect of discontinued operations, the tax expense relating to: (i) the gain or loss on discontinuance; and (ii) the profit or loss from the ordinary activities of the discontinued operation; and (c) the amount of a deferred tax asset and the nature of the evidence supporting its recognition, when: (i) the utilisation of the deferred tax asset is dependent on future taxable profits in excess of the profits arising from the reversal of existing taxable temporary differences; and (ii) the entity has suffered a loss in either the current or preceding period in the tax jurisdiction to which the deferred tax asset relates. International Accounting Standard 12 Income Taxes Objective The objective of this Standard is to prescribe the accounting treatment for income taxes. The principal issue in accounting for income taxes is how to account for the current and future tax consequences of: (a) the future recovery (settlement) of the carrying amount of assets (liabilities) that are recognised in an entity’s balance sheet; and (b) transactions and other events of the current period that are recognised in an entity’s financial statements. It is inherent in the recognition of an asset or liability that the reporting entity expects to recover or settle the carrying amount of that asset or liability. If it is probable that recovery or settlement of that carrying amount will make future tax payments larger (smaller) than they would be if such recovery or settlement were to have no tax consequences, this Standard requires an entity to recognise a deferred tax liability (deferred tax asset), with certain limited exceptions. This Standard requires an entity to account for the tax consequences of transactions and other events in the same way that it accounts for the transactions and other events themselves. Thus, for transactions and other events recognised in profit or loss, any related tax effects are also recognised in profit or loss. For transactions and other events recognised directly in equity, any related tax effects are also recognised directly in equity. Similarly, the recognition of deferred tax assets and liabilities in a business combination affects the amount of goodwill arising in that business combination or the amount of any excess of the acquirer’s interest in the net fair value of the acquiree’s identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities over the cost of the combination. This Standard also deals with the recognition of deferred tax assets arising from unused tax losses or unused tax credits, the presentation of income taxes in the financial statements and the disclosure of information relating to income taxes. Scope 1 This Standard shall be applied in accounting for income taxes. 2 For the purposes of this Standard, income taxes include all domestic and foreign taxes which are based on taxable profits. Income taxes also include taxes, such as withholding taxes, which are payable by a subsidiary, associate or joint venture on distributions to the reporting entity. 3 [Deleted] This Standard does not deal with the methods of accounting for government grants (see IAS 20 Accounting for Government Grants and Disclosure of Government Assistance) or investment tax credits. However, this Standard does deal with the accounting for temporary differences that may arise from such grants or investment tax credits. Definitions 5 The following terms are used in this Standard with the meanings specified: Accounting profit is profit or loss for a period before deducting tax expense. Taxable profit (tax loss) is the profit (loss) for a period, determined in accordance with the rules established by the taxation authorities, upon which income taxes are payable (recoverable). Tax expense (tax income) is the aggregate amount included in the determination of profit or loss for the period in respect of current tax and deferred tax. Current tax is the amount of income taxes payable (recoverable) in respect of the taxable profit (tax loss) for a period. Deferred tax liabilities are the amounts of income taxes payable in future periods in respect of taxable temporary differences. Deferred tax assets are the amounts of income taxes recoverable in future periods in respect of: (a) deductible temporary differences; (b) the carryforward of unused tax losses; and (c) the carryforward of unused tax credits. Temporary differences are differences between the carrying amount of an asset or liability in the balance sheet and its tax base. Temporary differences may be either: (a) taxable temporary differences, which are temporary differences that will result in taxable amounts in determining taxable profit (tax loss) of future periods when the carrying amount of the asset or liability is recovered or settled; or (b) deductible temporary differences, which are temporary differences that will result in amounts that are deductible in determining taxable profit (tax loss) of future periods when the carrying amount of the asset or liability is recovered or settled. The tax base of an asset or liability is the amount attributed to that asset or liability for tax purposes. 6 Tax expense (tax income) comprises current tax expense (current tax income) and deferred tax expense (deferred tax income). Tax base The tax base of an asset is the amount that will be deductible for tax purposes against any taxable economic benefits that will flow to an entity when it recovers the carrying amount of the asset. If those economic benefits will not be taxable, the tax base of the asset is equal to its carrying amount. Examples 1 A machine cost 100. For tax purposes, depreciation of 30 has already been deducted in the current and prior periods and the remaining cost will be deductible in future periods, either as depreciation or through a deduction on disposal. Revenue generated by using the machine is taxable, any gain on disposal of the machine will be taxable and any loss on disposal will be deductible for tax purposes. The tax base of the machine is 70. 2 Interest receivable has a carrying amount of 100. The related interest revenue will be taxed on a cash basis. The tax base of the interest receivable is nil. 3 Trade receivables have a carrying amount of 100. The related revenue has already been included in taxable profit (tax loss). The tax base of the trade receivables is 100. 4 Dividends receivable from a subsidiary have a carrying amount of 100. The dividends are not taxable. In substance, the entire carrying amount of the asset is deductible against the economic benefits. Consequently, the tax base of the dividends receivable is 100.(a) 5 A loan receivable has a carrying amount of 100. The repayment of the loan will have no tax consequences. The tax base of the loan is 100. (a) Under this analysis, there is no taxable temporary difference. An alternative analysis is that the accrued dividends receivable have a tax base of nil and that a tax rate of nil is applied to the resulting taxable temporary difference of 100. Under both analyses, there is no deferred tax liability. The tax base of a liability is its carrying amount, less any amount that will be deductible for tax purposes in respect of that liability in future periods. In the case of revenue which is received in advance, the tax base of the resulting liability is its carrying amount, less any amount of the revenue that will not be taxable in future periods. Examples 1 Current liabilities include accrued expenses with a carrying amount of 100. The related expense will be deducted for tax purposes on a cash basis. The tax base of the accrued expenses is nil. 2 Current liabilities include interest revenue received in advance, with a carrying amount of 100. The related interest revenue was taxed on a cash basis. The tax base of the interest received in advance is nil. 3 Current liabilities include accrued expenses with a carrying amount of 100. The related expense has already been deducted for tax purposes. The tax base of the accrued expenses is 100. 4 Current liabilities include accrued fines and penalties with a carrying amount of 100. Fines and penalties are not deductible for tax purposes. The tax base of the accrued fines and penalties is 100.(a) 5 A loan payable has a carrying amount of 100. The repayment of the loan will have no tax consequences. The tax base of the loan is 100. (a) Under this analysis, there is no deductible temporary difference. An alternative analysis is that the accrued fines and penalties payable have a tax base of nil and that a tax rate of nil is applied to the resulting deductible temporary difference of 100. Under both analyses, there is no deferred tax asset. 9 Some items have a tax base but are not recognised as assets and liabilities in the balance sheet. For example, research costs are recognised as an expense in determining accounting profit in the period in which they are incurred but may not be permitted as a deduction in determining taxable profit (tax loss) until a later period. The difference between the tax base of the research costs, being the amount the taxation authorities will permit as a deduction in future periods, and the carrying amount of nil is a deductible temporary difference that results in a deferred tax asset. 10 Where the tax base of an asset or liability is not immediately apparent, it is helpful to consider the fundamental principle upon which this Standard is based: that an entity shall, with certain limited exceptions, recognise a deferred tax liability (asset) whenever recovery or settlement of the carrying amount of an asset or liability would make future tax payments larger (smaller) than they would be if such recovery or settlement were to have no tax consequences. Example C following paragraph 52 illustrates circumstances when it may be helpful to consider this fundamental principle, for example, when the tax base of an asset or liability depends on the expected manner of recovery or settlement. 11 In consolidated financial statements, temporary differences are determined by comparing the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities in the consolidated financial statements with the appropriate tax base. The tax base is determined by reference to a consolidated tax return in those jurisdictions in which such a return is filed. In other jurisdictions, the tax base is determined by reference to the tax returns of each entity in the group. Recognition of current tax liabilities and current tax assets 12 Current tax for current and prior periods shall, to the extent unpaid, be recognised as a liability. If the amount already paid in respect of current and prior periods exceeds the amount due for those periods, the excess shall be recognised as an asset. 13 The benefit relating to a tax loss that can be carried back to recover current tax of a previous period shall be recognised as an asset. 14 When a tax loss is used to recover current tax of a previous period, an entity recognises the benefit as an asset in the period in which the tax loss occurs because it is probable that the benefit will flow to the entity and the benefit can be reliably measured. Recognition of deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets Taxable temporary differences 15 A deferred tax liability shall be recognised for all taxable temporary differences, except to the extent that the deferred tax liability arises from: (a) the initial recognition of goodwill; or (b) the initial recognition of an asset or liability in a transaction which: (i) is not a business combination; and (ii) at the time of the transaction, affects neither accounting profit nor taxable profit (tax loss). However, for taxable temporary differences associated with investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates, and interests in joint ventures, a deferred tax liability shall be recognised in accordance with paragraph 39. 16 It is inherent in the recognition of an asset that its carrying amount will be recovered in the form of economic benefits that flow to the entity in future periods. When the carrying amount of the asset exceeds its tax base, the amount of taxable economic benefits will exceed the amount that will be allowed as a deduction for tax purposes. This difference is a taxable temporary difference and the obligation to pay the resulting income taxes in future periods is a deferred tax liability. As the entity recovers the carrying amount of the asset, the taxable temporary difference will reverse and the entity will have taxable profit. This makes it probable that economic benefits will flow from the entity in the form of tax payments. Therefore, this Standard requires the recognition of all deferred tax liabilities, except in certain circumstances described in paragraphs 15 and 39. Example An asset which cost 150 has a carrying amount of 100. Cumulative depreciation for tax purposes is 90 and the tax rate is 25%. The tax base of the asset is 60 (cost of 150 less cumulative tax depreciation of 90). To recover the carrying amount of 100, the entity must earn taxable income of 100, but will only be able to deduct tax depreciation of 60. Consequently, the entity will pay income taxes of 10 (40 at 25%) when it recovers the carrying amount of the asset. The difference between the carrying amount of 100 and the tax base of 60 is a taxable temporary difference of 40. Therefore, the entity recognises a deferred tax liability of 10 (40 at 25%) representing the income taxes that it will pay when it recovers the carrying amount of the asset. 17 Some temporary differences arise when income or expense is included in accounting profit in one period but is included in taxable profit in a different period. Such temporary differences are often described as timing differences. The following are examples of temporary differences of this kind which are taxable temporary differences and which therefore result in deferred tax liabilities: (a) interest revenue is included in accounting profit on a time proportion basis but may, in some jurisdictions, be included in taxable profit when cash is collected. The tax base of any receivable recognised in the balance sheet with respect to such revenues is nil because the revenues do not affect taxable profit until cash is collected; (b) depreciation used in determining taxable profit (tax loss) may differ from that used in determining accounting profit. The temporary difference is the difference between the carrying amount of the asset and its tax base which is the original cost of the asset less all deductions in respect of that asset permitted by the taxation authorities in determining taxable profit of the current and prior periods. A taxable temporary difference arises, and results in a deferred tax liability, when tax depreciation is accelerated (if tax depreciation is less rapid than accounting depreciation, a deductible temporary difference arises, and results in a deferred tax asset); and (c) development costs may be capitalised and amortised over future periods in determining accounting profit but deducted in determining taxable profit in the period in which they are incurred. Such development costs have a tax base of nil as they have already been deducted from taxable profit. The temporary difference is the difference between the carrying amount of the development costs and their tax base of nil. 18 Temporary differences also arise when: (a) the cost of a business combination is allocated by recognising the identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed at their fair values, but o equivalent adjustment is made for tax purposes (see paragraph 19); (b) assets are revalued and no equivalent adjustment is made for tax purposes (see paragraph 20); (c) goodwill arises in a business combination (see paragraph 21); (d) the tax base of an asset or liability on initial recognition differs from its initial carrying amount, for example when an entity benefits from non-taxable government grants related to assets (see paragraphs 22 and 33); or (e) the carrying amount of investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates or interests in joint ventures becomes different from the tax base of the investment or interest (see paragraphs 38–45). Business combinations 19 The cost of a business combination is allocated by recognising the identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed at their fair values at the acquisition date. Temporary differences arise when the tax bases of the identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed are not affected by the business combination or are affected differently. For example, when the carrying amount of an asset is increased to fair value but the tax base of the asset remains at cost to the previous owner, a taxable temporary difference arises which results in a deferred tax liability. The resulting deferred tax liability affects goodwill (see paragraph 66). Assets carried at fair value 20 IFRSs permit or require certain assets to be carried at fair value or to be revalued (see, for example, IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment, IAS 38 Intangible Assets, IAS 39 Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement and IAS 40 Investment Property). In some jurisdictions, the revaluation or other restatement of an asset to fair value affects taxable profit (tax loss) for the current period. As a result, the tax base of the asset is adjusted and no temporary difference arises. In other jurisdictions, the revaluation or restatement of an asset does not affect taxable profit in the period of the revaluation or restatement and, consequently, the tax base of the asset is not adjusted. Nevertheless, the future recovery of the carrying amount will result in a taxable flow of economic benefits to the entity and the amount that will be deductible for tax purposes will differ from the amount of those economic benefits. The difference between the carrying amount of a revalued asset and its tax base is a temporary difference and gives rise to a deferred tax liability or asset. This is true even if: (a) the entity does not intend to dispose of the asset. In such cases, the revalued carrying amount of the asset will be recovered through use and this will generate taxable income which exceeds the depreciation that will be allowable for tax purposes in future periods; or (b) tax on capital gains is deferred if the proceeds of the disposal of the asset are invested in similar assets. In such cases, the tax will ultimately become payable on sale or use of the similar assets. Goodwill 21 Goodwill arising in a business combination is measured as the excess of the cost of the combination over the acquirer’s interest in the net fair value of the acquiree’s identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities. Many taxation authorities do not allow reductions in the carrying amount of goodwill as a deductible expense in determining taxable profit. Moreover, in such jurisdictions, the cost of goodwill is often not deductible when a subsidiary disposes of its underlying business. In such jurisdictions, goodwill has a tax base of nil. Any difference between the carrying amount of goodwill and its tax base of nil is a taxable temporary difference. However, this Standard does not permit the recognition of the resulting deferred tax liability because goodwill is measured as a residual and the recognition of the deferred tax liability would increase the carrying amount of goodwill. 21A Subsequent reductions in a deferred tax liability that is unrecognised because it arises from the initial recognition of goodwill are also regarded as arising from the initial recognition of goodwill and are therefore not recognised under paragraph 15(a). For example, if goodwill acquired in a business combination has a cost of 100 but a tax base of nil, paragraph 15(a) prohibits the entity from recognising the resulting deferred tax liability. If the entity subsequently recognises an impairment loss of 20 for that goodwill, the amount of the taxable temporary difference relating to the goodwill is reduced from 100 to 80, with a resulting decrease in the value of the unrecognised deferred tax liability. That decrease in the value of the unrecognised deferred tax liability is also regarded as relating to the initial recognition of the goodwill and is therefore prohibited from being recognised under paragraph 15(a). 21B Deferred tax liabilities for taxable temporary differences relating to goodwill are, however, recognised to the extent they do not arise from the initial recognition of goodwill. For example, if goodwill acquired in a business combination has a cost of 100 that is deductible for tax purposes at a rate of 20 per cent per year starting in the year of acquisition, the tax base of the goodwill is 100 on initial recognition and 80 at the end of the year of acquisition. If the carrying amount of goodwill at the end of the year of acquisition remains unchanged at 100, a taxable temporary difference of 20 arises at the end of that year. Because that taxable temporary difference does not relate to the initial recognition of the goodwill, the resulting deferred tax liability is recognised. Initial recognition of an asset or liability 22 A temporary difference may arise on initial recognition of an asset or liability, for example if part or all of the cost of an asset will not be deductible for tax purposes. The method of accounting for such a temporary difference depends on the nature of the transaction which led to the initial recognition of the asset or liability: (a) in a business combination, an entity recognises any deferred tax liability or asset and this affects the amount of goodwill or the amount of any excess over the cost of the combination of the acquirer’s interest in the net fair value of the acquiree’s identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities (see paragraph 19); (b) if the transaction affects either accounting profit or taxable profit, an entity recognises any deferred tax liability or asset and recognises the resulting deferred tax expense or income in the income statement (see paragraph 59);  (c) if the transaction is not a business combination, and affects neither accounting profit nor taxable profit, an entity would, in the absence of the exemption provided by paragraphs 15 and 24, recognise the resulting deferred tax liability or asset and adjust the carrying amount of the asset or liability by the same amount. Such adjustments would make the financial statements less transparent. Therefore, this Standard does not permit an entity to recognise the resulting deferred tax liability or asset, either on initial recognition or subsequently (see example below). Furthermore, an entity does not recognise subsequent changes in the unrecognised deferred tax liability or asset as the asset is depreciated. Example illustrating paragraph 22(c) An entity intends to use an asset which cost 1,000 throughout its useful life of five years and then dispose of it for a residual value of nil. The tax rate is 40%. Depreciation of the asset is not deductible for tax purposes. On disposal, any capital gain would not be taxable and any capital loss would not be deductible. As it recovers the carrying amount of the asset, the entity will earn taxable income of 1,000 and pay tax of 400. The entity does not recognise the resulting deferred tax liability of 400 because it results from the initial recognition of the asset. In the following year, the carrying amount of the asset is 800. In earning taxable income of 800, the entity will pay tax of 320. The entity does not recognise the deferred tax liability of 320 because it results from the initial recognition of the asset. 23 In accordance with IAS 32 Financial Instruments: Presentation the issuer of a compound financial instrument (for example, a convertible bond) classifies the instrument’s liability component as a liability and the equity component as equity. In some jurisdictions, the tax base of the liability component on initial recognition is equal to the initial carrying amount of the sum of the liability and equity components. The resulting taxable temporary difference arises from the initial recognition of the equity component separately from the liability component. Therefore, the exception set out in paragraph 15(b) does not apply. Consequently, an entity recognises the resulting deferred tax liability. In accordance with paragraph 61, the deferred tax is charged directly to the carrying amount of the equity component. In accordance with paragraph 58, subsequent changes in the deferred tax liability are recognised in the income statement as deferred tax expense (income). Deductible temporary differences 24 A deferred tax asset shall be recognised for all deductible temporary differences to the extent that it is probable that taxable profit will be available against which the deductible temporary difference can be utilised, unless the deferred tax asset arises from the initial recognition of an asset or liability in a transaction that: (a) is not a business combination; and (b) at the time of the transaction, affects neither accounting profit nor taxable profit (tax loss). However, for deductible temporary differences associated with investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates, and interests in joint ventures, a deferred tax asset shall be recognised in accordance with paragraph 44. It is inherent in the recognition of a liability that the carrying amount will be settled in future periods through an outflow from the entity of resources embodying economic benefits. When resources flow from the entity, part or all of their amounts may be deductible in determining taxable profit of a period later than the period in which the liability is recognised. In such cases, a temporary difference exists between the carrying amount of the liability and its tax base. Accordingly, a deferred tax asset arises in respect of the income taxes that will be recoverable in the future periods when that part of the liability is allowed as a deduction in determining taxable profit. Similarly, if the carrying amount of an asset is less than its tax base, the difference gives rise to a deferred tax asset in respect of the income taxes that will be recoverable in future periods. Example An entity recognises a liability of 100 for accrued product warranty costs. For tax purposes, the product warranty costs will not be deductible until the entity pays claims. The tax rate is 25%. The tax base of the liability is nil (carrying amount of 100, less the amount that will be deductible for tax purposes in respect of that liability in future periods). In settling the liability for its carrying amount, the entity will reduce its future taxable profit by an amount of 100 and, consequently, reduce its future tax payments by 25 (100 at 25%). The difference between the carrying amount of 100 and the tax base of nil is a deductible temporary difference of 100. Therefore, the entity recognises a deferred tax asset of 25 (100 at 25%), provided that it is probable that the entity will earn sufficient taxable profit in future periods to benefit from a reduction in tax payments. 26 The following are examples of deductible temporary differences which result in deferred tax assets: (a) retirement benefit costs may be deducted in determining accounting profit as service is provided by the employee, but deducted in determining taxable profit either when contributions are paid to a fund by the entity or when retirement benefits are paid by the entity. A temporary difference exists between the carrying amount of the liability and its tax base; the tax base of the liability is usually nil. Such a deductible temporary difference results in a deferred tax asset as economic benefits will flow to the entity in the form of a deduction from taxable profits when contributions or retirement benefits are paid; (b) research costs are recognised as an expense in determining accounting profit in the period in which they are incurred but may not be permitted as a deduction in determining taxable profit (tax loss) until a later period. The difference between the tax base of the research costs, being the amount the taxation authorities will permit as a deduction in future periods, and the carrying amount of nil is a deductible temporary difference that results in a deferred tax asset; (c) the cost of a business combination is allocated by recognising the identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed at their fair values at the acquisition date. When a liability assumed is recognised at the acquisition date but the related costs are not deducted in determining taxable profits until a later period, a deductible temporary difference arises which results in a deferred tax asset. A deferred tax asset also arises when the fair value of an identifiable asset acquired is less than its tax base. In both cases, the resulting deferred tax asset affects goodwill (see paragraph 66); and (d) certain assets may be carried at fair value, or may be revalued, without an equivalent adjustment being made for tax purposes (see paragraph 20). A deductible temporary difference arises if the tax base of the asset exceeds its carrying amount. 27 The reversal of deductible temporary differences results in deductions in determining taxable profits of future periods. However, economic benefits in the form of reductions in tax payments will flow to the entity only if it earns sufficient taxable profits against which the deductions can be offset. Therefore, an entity recognises deferred tax assets only when it is probable that taxable profits will be available against which the deductible temporary differences can be utilised. 28 It is probable that taxable profit will be available against which a deductible temporary difference can be utilised when there are sufficient taxable temporary differences relating to the same taxation authority and the same taxable entity which are expected to reverse: (a) in the same period as the expected reversal of the deductible temporary difference; or (b) in periods into which a tax loss arising from the deferred tax asset can be carried back or forward. In such circumstances, the deferred tax asset is recognised in the period in which the deductible temporary differences arise. 29 When there are insufficient taxable temporary differences relating to the same taxation authority and the same taxable entity, the deferred tax asset is recognised to the extent that: (a) it is probable that the entity will have sufficient taxable profit relating to the same taxation authority and the same taxable entity in the same period as the reversal of the deductible temporary difference (or in the periods into which a tax loss arising from the deferred tax asset can be carried back or forward). In evaluating whether it will have sufficient taxable profit in future periods, an entity ignores taxable amounts arising from deductible temporary differences that are expected to originate in future periods, because the deferred tax asset arising from these deductible temporary differences will itself require future taxable profit in order to be utilised; or (b) tax planning opportunities are available to the entity that will create taxable profit in appropriate periods. 30 Tax planning opportunities are actions that the entity would take in order to create or increase taxable income in a particular period before the expiry of a tax loss or tax credit carryforward. For example, in some jurisdictions, taxable profit may be created or increased by: (a) electing to have interest income taxed on either a received or receivable basis; (b) deferring the claim for certain deductions from taxable profit; (c) selling, and perhaps leasing back, assets that have appreciated but for which the tax base has not been adjusted to reflect such appreciation; and (d) selling an asset that generates non-taxable income (such as, in some jurisdictions, a government bond) in order to purchase another investment that generates taxable income. Where tax planning opportunities advance taxable profit from a later period to an earlier period, the utilisation of a tax loss or tax credit carryforward still depends on the existence of future taxable profit from sources other than future originating temporary differences. 31 When an entity has a history of recent losses, the entity considers the guidance in paragraphs 35 and 36. 32 [Deleted] Initial recognition of an asset or liability 33 One case when a deferred tax asset arises on initial recognition of an asset is when a non-taxable government grant related to an asset is deducted in arriving at the carrying amount of the asset but, for tax purposes, is not deducted from the asset’s depreciable amount (in other words its tax base); the carrying amount of the asset is less than its tax base and this gives rise to a deductible temporary difference. Government grants may also be set up as deferred income in which case the difference between the deferred income and its tax base of nil is a deductible temporary difference. Whichever method of presentation an entity adopts, the entity does not recognise the resulting deferred tax asset, for the reason given in paragraph 22. Unused tax losses and unused tax credits 34 A deferred tax asset shall be recognised for the carryforward of unused tax losses and unused tax credits to the extent that it is probable that future taxable profit will be available against which the unused tax losses and unused tax credits can be utilised. 35 The criteria for recognising deferred tax assets arising from the carryforward of unused tax losses and tax credits are the same as the criteria for recognising deferred tax assets arising from deductible temporary differences. However, the existence of unused tax losses is strong evidence that future taxable profit may not be available. Therefore, when an entity has a history of recent losses, the entity recognises a deferred tax asset arising from unused tax losses or tax credits only to the extent that the entity has sufficient taxable temporary differences or there is convincing other evidence that sufficient taxable profit will be available against which the unused tax losses or unused tax credits can be utilised by the entity. In such circumstances, paragraph 82 requires disclosure of the amount of the deferred tax asset and the nature of the evidence supporting its recognition. 36 An entity considers the following criteria in assessing the probability that taxable profit will be available against which the unused tax losses or unused tax credits can be utilised: (a) whether the entity has sufficient taxable temporary differences relating to the same taxation authority and the same taxable entity, which will result in taxable amounts against which the unused tax losses or unused tax credits can be utilised before they expire; (b) whether it is probable that the entity will have taxable profits before the unused tax losses or unused tax credits expire; (c) whether the unused tax losses result from identifiable causes which are unlikely to recur; and (d) whether tax planning opportunities (see paragraph 30) are available to the entity that will create taxable profit in the period in which the unused tax losses or unused tax credits can be utilised. To the extent that it is not probable that taxable profit will be available against which the unused tax losses or unused tax credits can be utilised, the deferred tax asset is not recognised. Reassessment of unrecognised deferred tax assets 37 At each balance sheet date, an entity reassesses unrecognised deferred tax assets. The entity recognises a previously unrecognised deferred tax asset to the extent that it has become probable that future taxable profit will allow the deferred tax asset to be recovered. For example, an improvement in trading conditions may make it more probable that the entity will be able to generate sufficient taxable profit in the future for the deferred tax asset to meet the recognition criteria set out in paragraph 24 or 34. Another example is when an entity reassesses deferred tax assets at the date of a business combination or subsequently (see paragraphs 67 and 68). Investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates and interests in joint ventures 38 Temporary differences arise when the carrying amount of investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates or interests in joint ventures (namely the parent or investor’s share of the net assets of the subsidiary, branch, associate or investee, including the carrying amount of goodwill) becomes different from the tax base (which is often cost) of the investment or interest. Such differences may arise in a number of different circumstances, for example: (a) the existence of undistributed profits of subsidiaries, branches, associates and joint ventures; (b) changes in foreign exchange rates when a parent and its subsidiary are based in different countries; and (c) a reduction in the carrying amount of an investment in an associate to its recoverable amount. In consolidated financial statements, the temporary difference may be different from the temporary difference associated with that investment in the parent’s separate financial statements if the parent carries the investment in its separate financial statements at cost or revalued amount. 39 An entity shall recognise a deferred tax liability for all taxable temporary differences associated with investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates, and interests in joint ventures, except to the extent that both of the following conditions are satisfied: (a) the parent, investor or venturer is able to control the timing of the reversal of the temporary difference; and (b) it is probable that the temporary difference will not reverse in the foreseeable future. 40 As a parent controls the dividend policy of its subsidiary, it is able to control the timing of the reversal of temporary differences associated with that investment (including the temporary differences arising not only from undistributed profits but also from any foreign exchange translation differences). Furthermore, it would often be impracticable to determine the amount of income taxes that would be payable when the temporary difference reverses. Therefore, when the parent has determined that those profits will not be distributed in the foreseeable future the parent does not recognise a deferred tax liability. The same considerations apply to investments in branches. 41 The non-monetary assets and liabilities of an entity are measured in its functional currency (see IAS 21 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates). If the entity’s taxable profit or tax loss (and, hence, the tax base of its non-monetary assets and liabilities) is determined in a different currency, changes in the exchange rate give rise to temporary differences that result in a recognised deferred tax liability or (subject to paragraph 24) asset. The resulting deferred tax is charged or credited to profit or loss (see paragraph 58). 42 An investor in an associate does not control that entity and is usually not in a position to determine its dividend policy. Therefore, in the absence of an agreement requiring that the profits of the associate will not be distributed in the foreseeable future, an investor recognises a deferred tax liability arising from taxable temporary differences associated with its investment in the associate. In some cases, an investor may not be able to determine the amount of tax that would be payable if it recovers the cost of its investment in an associate, but can determine that it will equal or exceed a minimum amount. In such cases, the deferred tax liability is measured at this amount.   43 The arrangement between the parties to a joint venture usually deals with the sharing of the profits and identifies whether decisions on such matters require the consent of all the venturers or a specified majority of the venturers. When the venturer can control the sharing of profits and it is probable that the profits will not be distributed in the foreseeable future, a deferred tax liability is not recognised. 44 An entity shall recognise a deferred tax asset for all deductible temporary differences arising from investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates, and interests in joint ventures, to the extent that, and only to the extent that, it is probable that: (a) the temporary difference will reverse in the foreseeable future; and (b) taxable profit will be available against which the temporary difference can be utilised. 45 In deciding whether a deferred tax asset is recognised for deductible temporary differences associated with its investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates, and its interests in joint ventures, an entity considers the guidance set out in paragraphs 28 to 31. Measurement 46 Current tax liabilities (assets) for the current and prior periods shall be measured at the amount expected to be paid to (recovered from) the taxation authorities, using the tax rates (and tax laws) that have been enacted or substantively enacted by the balance sheet date. 47 Deferred tax assets and liabilities shall be measured at the tax rates that are expected to apply to the period when the asset is realised or the liability is settled, based on tax rates (and tax laws) that have been enacted or substantively enacted by the balance sheet date. 48 Current and deferred tax assets and liabilities are usually measured using the tax rates (and tax laws) that have been enacted. However, in some jurisdictions, announcements of tax rates (and tax laws) by the government have the substantive effect of actual enactment, which may follow the announcement by a period of several months. In these circumstances, tax assets and liabilities are measured using the announced tax rate (and tax laws). 49 When different tax rates apply to different levels of taxable income, deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured using the average rates that are expected to apply to the taxable profit (tax loss) of the periods in which the temporary differences are expected to reverse. 50 [Deleted] 51 The measurement of deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets shall reflect the tax consequences that would follow from the manner in which the entity expects, at the balance sheet date, to recover or settle the carrying amount of its assets and liabilities. 52 In some jurisdictions, the manner in which an entity recovers (settles) the carrying amount of an asset (liability) may affect either or both of: (a) the tax rate applicable when the entity recovers (settles) the carrying amount of the asset (liability); and (b) the tax base of the asset (liability). In such cases, an entity measures deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets using the tax rate and the tax base that are consistent with the expected manner of recovery or settlement. Example A An asset has a carrying amount of 100 and a tax base of 60. A tax rate of 20% would apply if the asset were sold and a tax rate of 30% would apply to other income. The entity recognises a deferred tax liability of 8 (40 at 20%) if it expects to sell the asset without further use and a deferred tax liability of 12 (40 at 30%) if it expects to retain the asset and recover its carrying amount through use. Example B An asset with a cost of 100 and a carrying amount of 80 is revalued to 150. No equivalent adjustment is made for tax purposes. Cumulative depreciation for tax purposes is 30 and the tax rate is 30%. If the asset is sold for more than cost, the cumulative tax depreciation of 30 will be included in taxable income but sale proceeds in excess of cost will not be taxable. The tax base of the asset is 70 and there is a taxable temporary difference of 80. If the entity expects to recover the carrying amount by using the asset, it must generate taxable income of 150, but will only be able to deduct depreciation of 70. On this basis, there is a deferred tax liability of 24 (80 at 30%). If the entity expects to recover the carrying amount by selling the asset immediately for proceeds of 150, the deferred tax liability is computed as follows: Taxable Temporary Difference Tax Rate Deferred Tax Liability Cumulative tax depreciation 30 30% 9 Proceeds in excess of cost 50 nil – Total 80 9 (note: in accordance with paragraph 61, the additional deferred tax that arises on the revaluation is charged directly to equity) Example C The facts are as in example B, except that if the asset is sold for more than cost, the cumulative tax depreciation will be included in taxable income (taxed at 30%) and the sale proceeds will be taxed at 40%, after deducting an inflation-adjusted cost of 110. If the entity expects to recover the carrying amount by using the asset, it must generate taxable income of 150, but will only be able to deduct depreciation of 70. On this basis, the tax base is 70, there is a taxable temporary difference of 80 and there is a deferred tax liability of 24 (80 at 30%), as in example B. If the entity expects to recover the carrying amount by selling the asset immediately for proceeds of 150, the entity will be able to deduct the indexed cost of 110. The net proceeds of 40 will be taxed at 40%. In addition, the cumulative tax depreciation of 30 will be included in taxable income and taxed at 30%. On this basis, the tax base is 80 (110 less 30), there is a taxable temporary difference of 70 and there is a deferred tax liability of 25 (40 at 40% plus 30 at 30%). If the tax base is not immediately apparent in this example, it may be helpful to consider the fundamental principle set out in paragraph 10. (note: in accordance with paragraph 61, the additional deferred tax that arises on the revaluation is charged directly to equity) 52A In some jurisdictions, income taxes are payable at a higher or lower rate if part or all of the net profit or retained earnings is paid out as a dividend to shareholders of the entity. In some other jurisdictions, income taxes may be refundable or payable if part or all of the net profit or retained earnings is paid out as a dividend to shareholders of the entity. In these circumstances, current and deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured at the tax rate applicable to undistributed profits. 52B In the circumstances described in paragraph 52A, the income tax consequences of dividends are recognised when a liability to pay the dividend is recognised. The income tax consequences of dividends are more directly linked to past transactions or events than to distributions to owners. Therefore, the income tax consequences of dividends are recognised in profit or loss for the period as required by paragraph 58 except to the extent that the income tax consequences of dividends arise from the circumstances described in paragraph 58(a) and (b). Example illustrating paragraphs 52A and 52B Thefollowing example dealswith the measurement of current and deferred tax assets and liabilities for an entity in a jurisdiction where income taxes are payable at a higher rate on undistributed profits (50%) with an amount being refundable when profits are distributed. The tax rate on distributed profits is 35%. At the balance sheet date, 31 December 20X1, the entity does not recognise a liability for dividends proposed or declared after the balance sheet date. As a result, no dividends are recognised in the year 20X1. Taxable income for 20X1 is 100,000. The net taxable temporary difference for the year 20X1 is 40,000. The entity recognises a current tax liability and a current income tax expense of 50,000. No asset is recognised for the amount potentially recoverable as a result of future dividends. The entity also recognises a deferred tax liability and deferred tax expense of 20,000 (40,000 at 50%) representing the income taxes that the entity will pay when it recovers or settles the carrying amounts of its assets and liabilities based on the tax rate applicable to undistributed profits. Subsequently, on 15 March 20X2 the entity recognises dividends of 10,000 from previous operating profits as a liability. On 15 March 20X2, the entity recognises the recovery of income taxes of 1,500 (15% of the dividends recognised as a liability) as a current tax asset and as a reduction of current income tax expense for 20X2. 53 Deferred tax assets and liabilities shall not be discounted. 54 The reliable determination of deferred tax assets and liabilities on a discounted basis requires detailed scheduling of the timing of the reversal of each temporary difference. In many cases such scheduling is impracticable or highly complex. Therefore, it is inappropriate to require discounting of deferred tax assets and liabilities. To permit, but not to require, discounting would result in deferred tax assets and liabilities which would not be comparable between entities. Therefore, this Standard does not require or permit the discounting of deferred tax assets and liabilities. 55 Temporary differences are determined by reference to the carrying amount of an asset or liability. This applies even where that carrying amount is itself determined on a discounted basis, for example in the case of retirement benefit obligations (see IAS 19 Employee Benefits). 56 The carrying amount of a deferred tax asset shall be reviewed at each balance sheet date. An entity shall reduce the carrying amount of a deferred tax asset to the extent that it is no longer probable that sufficient taxable profit will be available to allow the benefit of part or all of that deferred tax asset to be utilised. Any such reduction shall be reversed to the extent that it becomes probable that sufficient taxable profit will be available. Recognition of current and deferred tax 57 Accounting for the current and deferred tax effects of a transaction or other event is consistent with the accounting for the transaction or event itself. Paragraphs 58 to 68C implement this principle. Income statement 58 Current and deferred tax shall be recognised as income or an expense and included in profit or loss for the period, except to the extent that the tax arises from: (a) a transaction or event which is recognised, in the same or a different period, directly in equity (see paragraphs 61 to 65); or (b) a business combination (see paragraphs 66 to 68). 59 Most deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets arise where income or expense is included in accounting profit in one period, but is included in taxable profit (tax loss) in a different period. The resulting deferred tax is recognised in the income statement. Examples are when: (a) interest, royalty or dividend revenue is received in arrears and is included in accounting profit on a time apportionment basis in accordance with IAS 18 Revenue, but is included in taxable profit (tax loss) on a cash basis; and (b) costs of intangible assets have been capitalised in accordance with IAS 38 and are being amortised in the income statement, but were deducted for tax purposes when they were incurred. 60 The carrying amount of deferred tax assets and liabilities may change even though there is no change in the amount of the related temporary differences. This can result, for example, from: (a) a change in tax rates or tax laws; (b) a reassessment of the recoverability of deferred tax assets; or (c) a change in the expected manner of recovery of an asset. The resulting deferred tax is recognised in the income statement, except to the extent that it relates to items previously charged or credited to equity (see paragraph 63). Items credited or charged directly to equity 61 Current tax and deferred tax shall be charged or credited directly to equity if the tax relates to items that are credited or charged, in the same or a different period, directly to equity. 62 International Financial Reporting Standards require or permit certain items to be credited or charged directly to equity. Examples of such items are: (a) a change in carrying amount arising from the revaluation of property, plant and equipment (see IAS 16); (b) an adjustment to the opening balance of retained earnings resulting from either a change in accounting policy that is applied retrospectively or the correction of an error (see IAS 8 Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors); (c) exchange differences arising on the translation of the financial statements of a foreign operation (see IAS 21); and (d) amounts arising on initial recognition of the equity component of a compound financial instrument (see paragraph 23). 63 In exceptional circumstances it may be difficult to determine the amount of current and deferred tax that relates to items credited or charged to equity. This may be the case, for example, when: (a) there are graduated rates of income tax and it is impossible to determine the rate at which a specific component of taxable profit (tax loss) has been taxed; (b) a change in the tax rate or other tax rules affects a deferred tax asset or liability relating (in whole or in part) to an item that was previously charged or credited to equity; or (c) an entity determines that a deferred tax asset should be recognised, or should no longer be recognised in full, and the deferred tax asset relates (in whole or in part) to an item that was previously charged or credited to equity. In such cases, the current and deferred tax related to items that are credited or charged to equity is based on a reasonable pro rata allocation of the current and deferred tax of the entity in the tax jurisdiction concerned, or other method that achieves a more appropriate allocation in the circumstances. 64 IAS 16 does not specify whether an entity should transfer each year from revaluation surplus to retained earnings an amount equal to the difference between the depreciation or amortisation on a revalued asset and the depreciation or amortisation based on the cost of that asset. If an entity makes such a transfer, the amount transferred is net of any related deferred tax. Similar considerations apply to transfers made on disposal of an item of property, plant or equipment. 65 When an asset is revalued for tax purposes and that revaluation is related to an accounting revaluation of an earlier period, or to one that is expected to be carried out in a future period, the tax effects of both the asset revaluation and the adjustment of the tax base are credited or charged to equity in the periods in which they occur. However, if the revaluation for tax purposes is not related to an accounting revaluation of an earlier period, or to one that is expected to be carried out in a future period, the tax effects of the adjustment of the tax base are recognised in the income statement. 65A When an entity pays dividends to its shareholders, it may be required to pay a portion of the dividends to taxation authorities on behalf of shareholders. In many jurisdictions, this amount is referred to as a withholding tax. Such an amount paid or payable to taxation authorities is charged to equity as a part of the dividends.   Deferred tax arising from a business combination 66 As explained in paragraphs 19 and 26(c), temporary differences may arise in a business combination. In accordance with IFRS 3 Business Combinations, an entity recognises any resulting deferred tax assets (to the extent that they meet the recognition criteria in paragraph 24) or deferred tax liabilities as identifiable assets and liabilities at the acquisition date. Consequently, those deferred tax assets and liabilities affect goodwill or the amount of any excess of the acquirer’s interest in the net fair value of the acquiree’s identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities over the cost of the combination. However, in accordance with paragraph 15(a), an entity does not recognise deferred tax liabilities arising from the initial recognition of goodwill. 67 As a result of a business combination, an acquirer may consider it probable that it will recover its own deferred tax asset that was not recognised before the business combination. For example, the acquirer may be able to utilise the benefit of its unused tax losses against the future taxable profit of the acquiree. In such cases, the acquirer recognises a deferred tax asset, but does not include it as part of the accounting for the business combination, and therefore does not take it into account in determining the goodwill or the amount of any excess of the acquirer’s interest in the net fair value of the acquiree’s identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities over the cost of the combination. 68 If the potential benefit of the acquiree’s income tax loss carryforwards or other deferred tax assets did not satisfy the criteria in IFRS 3 for separate recognition when a business combination is initially accounted for but is subsequently realised, the acquirer shall recognise the resulting deferred tax income in profit or loss. In addition, the acquirer shall: (a) reduce the carrying amount of goodwill to the amount that would have been recognised if the deferred tax asset had been recognised as an identifiable asset from the acquisition date; and (b) recognises the reduction in the carrying amount of goodwill as an expense. However, this procedure shall not result in the creation of an excess of the acquirer’s interest in the net fair value of the acquiree’s identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities over the cost of the combination, nor shall it increase the amount previously recognised for any such excess. Example An entity acquired a subsidiary that had deductible temporary differences of 300. The tax rate at the time of the acquisition was 30 per cent. The resulting deferred tax asset of 90 was not recognised as an identifiable asset in determining the goodwill of 500 that resulted from the business combination. Two years after the combination, the entity assessed that future taxable profit should be sufficient to recover the benefit of all the deductible temporary differences. The entity recognises a deferred tax asset of 90 and, in profit or loss, deferred tax income of 90. The entity also reduces the carrying amount of goodwill by 90 and recognises an expense for this amount in profit or loss. Consequently, the cost of the goodwill is reduced to 410, being the amount that would have been recognised had the deferred tax asset of 90 been recognised as an identifiable asset at the acquisition date. If the tax rate had increased to 40 per cent, the entity would have recognised a deferred tax asset of 120 (300 at 40 per cent) and, in profit or loss, deferred tax income of 120. If the tax rate had decreased to 20 per cent, the entity would have recognised a deferred tax asset of 60 (300 at 20 per cent) and deferred tax income of 60. In both cases, the entity would also reduce the carrying amount of goodwill by 90 and recognise an expense for that amount in profit or loss. Current and deferred tax arising from share-based payment transactions 68A In some tax jurisdictions, an entity receives a tax deduction (ie an amount that is deductible in determining taxable profit) that relates to remuneration paid in shares, share options or other equity instruments of the entity. The amount of that tax deduction may differ from the related cumulative remuneration expense, and may arise in a later accounting period. For example, in some jurisdictions, an entity may recognise an expense for the consumption of employee services received as consideration for share options granted, in accordance with IFRS 2 Share-based Payment, and not receive a tax deduction until the share options are exercised, with the measurement of the tax deduction based on the entity’s share price at the date of exercise. 68B As with the research costs discussed in paragraphs 9 and 26(b) of this Standard, the difference between the tax base of the employee services received to date (being the amount the taxation authorities will permit as a deduction in future periods), and the carrying amount of nil, is a deductible temporary difference that results in a deferred tax asset. If the amount the taxation authorities will permit as a deduction in future periods is not known at the end of the period, it shall be estimated, based on information available at the end of the period. For example, if the amount that the taxation authorities will permit as a deduction in future periods is dependent upon the entity’s share price at a future date, the measurement of the deductible temporary difference should be based on the entity’s share price at the end of the period. 68C As noted in paragraph 68A, the amount of the tax deduction (or estimated future tax deduction, measured in accordance with paragraph 68B) may differ from the related cumulative remuneration expense. Paragraph 58 of the Standard requires that current and deferred tax should be recognised as income or an expense and included in profit or loss for the period, except to the extent that the tax arises from (a) a transaction or event which is recognised, in the same or a different period, directly in equity, or (b) a business combination. If the amount of the tax deduction (or estimated future tax deduction) exceeds the amount of the related cumulative remuneration expense, this indicates that the tax deduction relates not only to remuneration expense but also to an equity item. In this situation, the excess of the associated current or deferred tax should be recognised directly in equity. Presentation Tax assets and tax liabilities 69 [Deleted] 70 [Deleted] Offset 71 An entity shall offset current tax assets and current tax liabilities if, and only if, the entity: (a) has a legally enforceable right to set off the recognised amounts; and (b) intends either to settle on a net basis, or to realise the asset and settle the liability simultaneously. 72 Although current tax assets and liabilities are separately recognised and measured they are offset in the balance sheet subject to criteria similar to those established for financial instruments in IAS 32. An entity will normally have a legally enforceable right to set off a current tax asset against a current tax liability when they relate to income taxes levied by the same taxation authority and the taxation authority permits the entity to make or receive a single net payment. 73 In consolidated financial statements, a current tax asset of one entity in a group is offset against a current tax liability of another entity in the group if, and only if, the entities concerned have a legally enforceable right to make or receive a single net payment and the entities intend to make or receive such a net payment or to recover the asset and settle the liability simultaneously. 74 An entity shall offset deferred tax assets and deferred tax liabilities if, and only if: (a) the entity has a legally enforceable right to set off current tax assets against current tax liabilities; and (b) the deferred tax assets and the deferred tax liabilities relate to income taxes levied by the same taxation authority on either: (i) the same taxable entity; or (ii) different taxable entities which intend either to settle current tax liabilities and assets on a net basis, or to realise the assets and settle the liabilities simultaneously, in each future period in which significant amounts of deferred tax liabilities or assets are expected to be settled or recovered. 75 To avoid the need for detailed scheduling of the timing of the reversal of each temporary difference, this Standard requires an entity to set off a deferred tax asset against a deferred tax liability of the same taxable entity if, and only if, they relate to income taxes levied by the same taxation authority and the entity has a legally enforceable right to set off current tax assets against current tax liabilities. 76 In rare circumstances, an entity may have a legally enforceable right of set-off, and an intention to settle net, for some periods but not for others. In such rare circumstances, detailed scheduling may be required to establish reliably whether the deferred tax liability of one taxable entity will result in increased tax payments in the same period in which a deferred tax asset of another taxable entity will result in decreased payments by that second taxable entity. Tax expense Tax expense (income) related to profit or loss from ordinary activities 77 The tax expense (income) related to profit or loss from ordinary activities shall be presented on the face of the income statement. Exchange differences on deferred foreign tax liabilities or assets 78 IAS 21 requires certain exchange differences to be recognised as income or expense but does not specify where such differences should be presented in the income statement. Accordingly, where exchange differences on deferred foreign tax liabilities or assets are recognised in the income statement, such differences may be classified as deferred tax expense (income) if that presentation is considered to be the most useful to financial statement users. Disclosure 79 The major components of tax expense (income) shall be disclosed separately. 80 Components of tax expense (income) may include: (a) current tax expense (income); (b) any adjustments recognised in the period for current tax of prior periods; (c) the amount of deferred tax expense (income) relating to the origination and reversal of temporary differences; (d) the amount of deferred tax expense (income) relating to changes in tax rates or the imposition of new taxes; (e) the amount of the benefit arising from a previously unrecognised tax loss, tax credit or temporary difference of a prior period that is used to reduce current tax expense; (f) the amount of the benefit from a previously unrecognised tax loss, tax credit or temporary difference of a prior period that is used to reduce deferred tax expense; (g) deferred tax expense arising from the write-down, or reversal of a previous write-down, of a deferred tax asset in accordance with paragraph 56; and (h) the amount of tax expense (income) relating to those changes in accounting policies and errors that are included in profit or loss in accordance with IAS 8, because they cannot be accounted for retrospectively. The following shall also be disclosed separately: (a) the aggregate current and deferred tax relating to items that are charged or credited to equity; (b) [deleted]; (c) an explanation of the relationship between tax expense (income) and accounting profit in either or both of the following forms: (i) a numerical reconciliation between tax expense (income) and the product of accounting profit multiplied by the applicable tax rate(s), disclosing also the basis on which the applicable tax rate(s) is (are) computed; or (ii) a numerical reconciliation between the average effective tax rate and the applicable tax rate, disclosing also the basis on which the applicable tax rate is computed; (d) an explanation of changes in the applicable tax rate(s) compared to the previous accounting period; (e) the amount (and expiry date, if any) of deductible temporary differences, unused tax losses, and unused tax credits for which no deferred tax asset is recognised in the balance sheet; (f) the aggregate amount of temporary differences associated with investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates and interests in joint ventures, for which deferred tax liabilities have not been recognised (see paragraph 39); (g) in respect of each type of temporary difference, and in respect of each type of unused tax losses and unused tax credits: (i) the amount of the deferred tax assets and liabilities recognised in the balance sheet for each period presented; (ii) the amount of the deferred tax income or expense recognised in the income statement, if this is not apparent from the changes in the amounts recognised in the balance sheet; (h) in respect of discontinued operations, the tax expense relating to: (i) the gain or loss on discontinuance; and (ii) the profit or loss from the ordinary activities of the discontinued operation for the period, together with the corresponding amounts for each prior period presented; and (i) the amount of income tax consequences of dividends to shareholders of the entity that were proposed or declared before the financial statements were authorised for issue, but are not recognised as a liability in the financial statements. 82 An entity shall disclose the amount of a deferred tax asset and the nature of the evidence supporting its recognition, when: (a) the utilisation of the deferred tax asset is dependent on future taxable profits in excess of the profits arising from the reversal of existing taxable temporary differences; and (b) the entity has suffered a loss in either the current or preceding period in the tax jurisdiction to which the deferred tax asset relates. 82A In the circumstances described in paragraph 52A, an entity shall disclose the nature of the potential income tax consequences that would result from the payment of dividends to its shareholders. In addition, the entity shall disclose the amounts of the potential income tax consequences practicably determinable and whether there are any potential income tax consequences not practicably determinable. 83 [Deleted] 84 The disclosures required by paragraph 81(c) enable users of financial statements to understand whether the relationship between tax expense (income) and accounting profit is unusual and to understand the significant factors that could affect that relationship in the future. The relationship between tax expense (income) and accounting profit may be affected by such factors as revenue that is exempt from taxation, expenses that are not deductible in determining taxable profit (tax loss), the effect of tax losses and the effect of foreign tax rates. 85 In explaining the relationship between tax expense (income) and accounting profit, an entity uses an applicable tax rate that provides the most meaningful information to the users of its financial statements. Often, the most meaningful rate is the domestic rate of tax in the country in which the entity is domiciled, aggregating the tax rate applied for national taxes with the rates applied for any local taxes which are computed on a substantially similar level of taxable profit (tax loss). However, for an entity operating in several jurisdictions, it may be more meaningful to aggregate separate reconciliations prepared using the domestic rate in each individual jurisdiction. The following example illustrates how the selection of the applicable tax rate affects the presentation of the numerical reconciliation. Example illustrating paragraph 85 In 19X2, an entity has accounting profit in its own jurisdiction (country A) of 1,500 (19X1: 2,000) and in country B of 1,500 (19X1: 500). The tax rate is 30% in country A and 20% in country B. In country A, expenses of 100 (19X1: 200) are not deductible for tax purposes. The following is an example of a reconciliation to the domestic tax rate. 19X1 19X2 Accounting profit 2,500 3,000 Tax at the domestic rate of 30% 750 900 Tax effect of expenses that are not deductible for tax purposes 60 30 Effect of lower tax rates in country B (50) (150) Tax expense 760 780 The following is an example of a reconciliation prepared by aggregating separate reconciliations for each national jurisdiction. Under this method, the effect of differences between the reporting entity’s own domestic tax rate and the domestic tax rate in other jurisdictions does not appear as a separate item in the reconciliation. An entity may need to discuss the effect of significant changes in either tax rates, or the mix of profits earned in different jurisdictions, in order to explain changes in the applicable tax rate(s), as required by paragraph 81(d). Accounting profit 2,500 3,000 Tax at the domestic rates applicable to profits in the country concerned 700 750 Tax effect of expenses that are not deductible for tax purposes 60 30 Tax expense 760 780 86 The average effective tax rate is the tax expense (income) divided by the accounting profit. 87 It would often be impracticable to compute the amount of unrecognised deferred tax liabilities arising from investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates and interests in joint ventures (see paragraph 39). Therefore, this Standard requires an entity to disclose the aggregate amount of the underlying temporary differences but does not require disclosure of the deferred tax liabilities. Nevertheless, where practicable, entities are encouraged to disclose the amounts of the unrecognised deferred tax liabilities because financial statement users may find such information useful. 87A Paragraph 82A requires an entity to disclose the nature of the potential income tax consequences that would result from the payment of dividends to its shareholders. An entity discloses the important features of the income tax systems and the factors that will affect the amount of the potential income tax consequences of dividends. 87B It would sometimes not be practicable to compute the total amount of the potential income tax consequences that would result from the payment of dividends to shareholders. This may be the case, for example, where an entity has a large number of foreign subsidiaries. However, even in such circumstances, some portions of the total amount may be easily determinable. For example, in a consolidated group, a parent and some of its subsidiaries may have paid income taxes at a higher rate on undistributed profits and be aware of the amount that would be refunded on the payment of future dividends to shareholders from consolidated retained earnings. In this case, that refundable amount is disclosed. If applicable, the entity also discloses that there are additional potential income tax consequences not practicably determinable. In the parent’s separate financial statements, if any, the disclosure of the potential income tax consequences relates to the parent’s retained earnings. 87C An entity required to provide the disclosures in paragraph 82A may also be required to provide disclosures related to temporary differences associated with investments in subsidiaries, branches and associates or interests in joint ventures. In such cases, an entity considers this in determining the information to be disclosed under paragraph 82A. For example, an entity may be required to disclose the aggregate amount of temporary differences associated with investments in subsidiaries for which no deferred tax liabilities have been recognised (see paragraph 81(f)). If it is impracticable to compute the amounts of unrecognised deferred tax liabilities (see paragraph 87) there may be amounts of potential income tax consequences of dividends not practicably determinable related to these subsidiaries. An entity discloses any tax-related contingent liabilities and contingent assets in accordance with IAS 37 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets. Contingent liabilities and contingent assets may arise, for example, from unresolved disputes with the taxation authorities. Similarly, where changes in tax rates or tax laws are enacted or announced after the balance sheet date, an entity discloses any significant effect of those changes on its current and deferred tax assets and liabilities (see IAS 10 Events after the Balance Sheet Date). Effective date 89 This Standard becomes operative for financial statements covering periods beginning on or after 1 January 1998, except as specified in paragraph 91. If an entity applies this Standard for financial statements covering periods beginning before 1 January 1998, the entity shall disclose the fact it has applied this Standard instead of IAS 12 Accounting for Taxes on Income, approved in 1979. 90 This Standard supersedes IAS 12 Accounting for Taxes on Income, approved in 1979. 91 Paragraphs 52A, 52B, 65A, 81(i), 82A, 87A, 87B, 87C and the deletion of paragraphs 3 and 50 become operative for annual financial statements* covering periods beginning on or after 1 January 2001. Earlier adoption is encouraged. If earlier adoption affects the financial statements, an entity shall disclose that fact. * Paragraph 91 refers to ‘annual financial statements’ in line with more explicit language for writing effective dates adopted in 1998. Paragraph 89 refers to ‘financial statements’. Appendix A Examples of temporary differences The appendix accompanies, but is not part of, IAS 12. A. Examples of circumstances that give rise to taxable temporary differences All taxable temporary differences give rise to a deferred tax liability. Transactions that affect the income statement 1 Interest revenue is received in arrears and is included in accounting profit on a time apportionment basis but is included in taxable profit on a cash basis. 2 Revenue from the sale of goods is included in accounting profit when goods are delivered but is included in taxable profit when cash is collected. (note: as explained in B3 below, there is also a deductible temporary difference associated with any related inventory). 3 Depreciation of an asset is accelerated for tax purposes. 4 Development costs have been capitalised and will be amortised to the income statement but were deducted in determining taxable profit in the period in which they were incurred. 5 Prepaid expenses have already been deducted on a cash basis in determining the taxable profit of the current or previous periods. Transactions that affect the balance sheet 6 Depreciation of an asset is not deductible for tax purposes and no deduction will be available for tax purposes when the asset is sold or scrapped. (note: paragraph 15(b) of the Standard prohibits recognition of the resulting deferred tax liability unless the asset was acquired in a business combination, see also paragraph 22 of the Standard). 7 A borrower records a loan at the proceeds received (which equal the amount due at maturity), less transaction costs. Subsequently, the carrying amount of the loan is increased by amortisation of the transaction costs to accounting profit. The transaction costs were deducted for tax purposes in the period when the loan was first recognised. (notes: (1) the taxable temporary difference is the amount of transaction costs already deducted in determining the taxable profit of current or prior periods, less the cumulative amount amortised to accounting profit; and (2) as the initial recognition of the loan affects taxable profit, the exception in paragraph 15(b) of the Standard does not apply. Therefore, the borrower recognises the deferred tax liability). 8 A loan payable was measured on initial recognition at the amount of the net proceeds, net of transaction costs. The transaction costs are amortised to accounting profit over the life of the loan. Those transaction costs are not deductible in determining the taxable profit of future, current or prior periods. (notes: (1) the taxable temporary difference is the amount of unamortised transaction costs; and (2) paragraph 15(b) of the Standard prohibits recognition of the resulting deferred tax liability). 9 The liability component of a compound financial instrument (for example a convertible bond) is measured at a discount to the amount repayable on maturity (see IAS 32 Financial Instruments: Presentation). The discount is not deductible in determining taxable profit (tax loss). Fair value adjustments and revaluations 10 Financial assets or investment property are carried at fair value which exceeds cost but no equivalent adjustment is made for tax purposes. 11 An entity revalues property, plant and equipment (under the revaluation model treatment in IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment) but no equivalent adjustment is made for tax purposes. (note: paragraph 61 of the Standard requires the related deferred tax to be charged directly to equity). Business combinations and consolidation 12 The carrying amount of an asset is increased to fair value in a business combination and no equivalent adjustment is made for tax purposes. (Note that on initial recognition, the resulting deferred tax liability increases goodwill or decreases the amount of any excess of the acquirer’s interest in the net fair value of the acquiree’s identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities over the cost of the combination. See paragraph 66 of the Standard). 13 Reductions in the carrying amount of goodwill are not deductible in determining taxable profit and the cost of the goodwill would not be deductible on disposal of the business. (Note that paragraph 15(a) of the Standard prohibits recognition of the resulting deferred tax liability). 14 Unrealised losses resulting from intragroup transactions are eliminated by inclusion in the carrying amount of inventory or property, plant and equipment. 15 Retained earnings of subsidiaries, branches, associates and joint ventures are included in consolidated retained earnings, but income taxes will be payable if the profits are distributed to the reporting parent. (note: paragraph 39 of the Standard prohibits recognition of the resulting deferred tax liability if the parent, investor or venturer is able to control the timing of the reversal of the temporary difference and it is probable that the temporary difference will not reverse in the foreseeable future). 16 Investments in foreign subsidiaries, branches or associates or interests in foreign joint ventures are affected by changes in foreign exchange rates. (notes: (1) there may be either a taxable temporary difference or a deductible temporary difference; and (2) paragraph 39 of the Standard prohibits recognition of the resulting deferred tax liability if the parent, investor or venturer is able to control the timing of the reversal of the temporary difference and it is probable that the temporary difference will not reverse in the foreseeable future). 17 The non-monetary assets and liabilities of an entity are measured in its functional currency but the taxable profit or tax loss is determined in a different currency. (notes: (1) there may be either a taxable temporary difference or a deductible temporary difference; (2) where there is a taxable temporary difference, the resulting deferred tax liability is recognised (paragraph 41 of the Standard); and (3) the deferred tax is recognised in profit or loss, see paragraph 58 of the Standard). Hyperinflation Non-monetary assets are restated in terms of the measuring unit current at the balance sheet date (see IAS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies) and no equivalent adjustment is made for tax purposes. (notes: (1) the deferred tax is charged in the income statement; and (2) if, in addition to the restatement, the non-monetary assets are also revalued, the deferred tax relating to the revaluation is charged to equity and the deferred tax relating to the restatement is charged in the income statement). B. Examples of circumstances that give rise to deductible temporary differences All deductible temporary differences give rise to a deferred tax asset. However, some deferred tax assets may not satisfy the recognition criteria in paragraph 24 of the Standard. Transactions that affect the income statement 1 Retirement benefit costs are deducted in determining accounting profit as service is provided by the employee, but are not deducted in determining taxable profit until the entity pays either retirement benefits or contributions to a fund. (note: similar deductible temporary differences arise where other expenses, such as product warranty costs or interest, are deductible on a cash basis in determining taxable profit). 2 Accumulated depreciation of an asset in the financial statements is greater than the cumulative depreciation allowed up to the balance sheet date for tax purposes. 3 The cost of inventories sold before the balance sheet date is deducted in determining accounting profit when goods or services are delivered but is deducted in determining taxable profit when cash is collected. (note: as explained in A2 above, there is also a taxable temporary difference associated with the related trade receivable). 4 The net realisable value of an item of inventory, or the recoverable amount of an item of property, plant or equipment, is less than the previous carrying amount and an entity therefore reduces the carrying amount of the asset, but that reduction is ignored for tax purposes until the asset is sold. 5 Research costs (or organisation or other start up costs) are recognised as an expense in determining accounting profit but are not permitted as a deduction in determining taxable profit until a later period. 6 Income is deferred in the balance sheet but has already been included in taxable profit in current or prior periods. 7 A government grant which is included in the balance sheet as deferred income will not be taxable in future periods. (note: paragraph 24 of the Standard prohibits the recognition of the resulting deferred tax asset, see also paragraph 33 of the Standard). Fair value adjustments and revaluations 8 Financial assets or investment property are carried at fair value which is less than cost, but no equivalent adjustment is made for tax purposes. Business combinations and consolidation 9 A liability is recognised at its fair value in a business combination, but none of the related expense is deducted in determining taxable profit until a later period. (Note that the resulting deferred tax asset decreases goodwill or increases the amount of any excess of the acquirer’s interest in the net fair value of the acquiree’s identifiable assets, liabilities and contingent liabilities over the cost of the combination. See paragraph 66 of the Standard). 10 [Deleted] 11 Unrealised profits resulting from intragroup transactions are eliminated from the carrying amount of assets, such as inventory or property, plant or equipment, but no equivalent adjustment is made for tax purposes. 12 Investments in foreign subsidiaries, branches or associates or interests in foreign joint ventures are affected by changes in foreign exchange rates. (notes: (1) there may be a taxable temporary difference or a deductible temporary difference; and (2) paragraph 44 of the Standard requires recognition of the resulting deferred tax asset to the extent, and only to the extent, that it is probable that: (a) the temporary difference will reverse in the foreseeable future; and (b) taxable profit will be available against which the temporary difference can be utilised). 13 The non-monetary assets and liabilities of an entity are measured in its functional currency but the taxable profit or tax loss is determined in a different currency. (notes: (1) there may be either a taxable temporary difference or a deductible temporary difference; (2) where there is a deductible temporary difference, the resulting deferred tax asset is recognised to the extent that it is probable that sufficient taxable profit will be available (paragraph 41 of the Standard); and (3) the deferred tax is recognised in profit or loss, see paragraph 58 of the Standard.) C. Examples of circumstances where the carrying amount of an asset or liability is equal to its tax base 1 Accrued expenses have already been deducted in determining an entity’s current tax liability for the current or earlier periods. 2 A loan payable is measured at the amount originally received and this amount is the same as the amount repayable on final maturity of the loan. 3 Accrued expenses will never be deductible for tax purposes. 4 Accrued income will never be taxable. Appendix B Illustrative computations and presentation The appendix accompanies, but is not part of, IAS 12. Extracts from income statements and balance sheets are provided to show the effects on these financial statements of the transactions described below. These extracts do not necessarily conform with all the disclosure and presentation requirements of other Standards. All the examples in this appendix assume that the entities concerned have no transaction other than those described. Example 1 – Depreciable assets An entity buys equipment for 10,000 and depreciates it on a straight-line basis over its expected useful life of five years. For tax purposes, the equipment is depreciated at 25% per annum on a straight-line basis. Tax losses may be carried back against taxable profit of the previous five years. In year 0, the entity’s taxable profit was 5,000. The tax rate is 40%. The entity will recover the carrying amount of the equipment by using it to manufacture goods for resale. Therefore, the entity’s current tax computation is as follows: Year 1234 5 Taxable income 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 Depreciation for tax purposes 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 0 Taxable profit (tax loss) (500) (500) (500) (500) 2,000 Current tax expense (income) at 40% (200) (200) (200) (200) 800 The entity recognises a current tax asset at the end of years 1 to 4 because it recovers the benefit of the tax loss against the taxable profit of year 0. The temporary differences associated with the equipment and the resulting deferred tax asset and liability and deferred tax expense and income are as follows: Year 12 345 Carrying amount 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 Tax base 7,500 5,000 2,500 0 0 Taxable temporary difference 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 0 Opening deferred tax liability 0 200 400 600 800 Deferred tax expense (income) 200 200 200 200 (800) Closing deferred tax liability 200 400 600 800 0 The entity recognises the deferred tax liability in years 1 to 4 because the reversal of the taxable temporary difference will create taxable income in subsequent years. The entity’s income statement is as follows: Year 1 2 3 4 5 Income 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 Depreciation 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 Profit before tax 0 0 0 0 0 Current tax expense (income) (200) (200) (200) (200) 800 Deferred tax expense (income) 200 200 200 200 (800) Total tax expense (income) 0 0 0 0 0 Net profit for the period 0 0 0 0 0 Example 2 – Deferred tax assets and liabilities The example deals with an entity over the two year period, X5 and X6. In X5 the enacted income tax rate was 40% of taxable profit. In X6 the enacted income tax rate was 35% of taxable profit. Charitable donations are recognised as an expense when they are paid and are not deductible for tax purposes. In X5, the entity was notified by the relevant authorities that they intend to pursue an action against the entity with respect to sulphur emissions. Although as at December X6 the action had not yet come to court the entity recognised a liability of 700 in X5 being its best estimate of the fine arising from the action. Fines are not deductible for tax purposes. In X2, the entity incurred 1,250 of costs in relation to the development of a new product. These costs were deducted for tax purposes in X2. For accounting purposes, the entity capitalised this expenditure and amortised it on the straight-line basis over five years. At 31/12/X4, the unamortised balance of these product development costs was 500. In X5, the entity entered into an agreement with its existing employees to provide health care benefits to retirees. The entity recognises as an expense the cost of this plan as employees provide service. No payments to retirees were made for such benefits in X5 or X6. Healthcare costs are deductible for tax purposes when payments are made to retirees. The entity has determined that it is probable that taxable profit will be available against which any resulting deferred tax asset can be utilised. Buildings are depreciated for accounting purposes at 5% a year on a straight-line basis and at 10% a year on a straight-line basis for tax purposes. Motor vehicles are depreciated for accounting purposes at 20% a year on a straight-line basis and at 25% a year on a straight-line basis for tax purposes. A full year’s depreciation is charged for accounting purposes in the year that an asset is acquired. At 1/1/X6, the building was revalued to 65,000 and the entity estimated that the remaining useful life of the building was 20 years from the date of the revaluation. The revaluation did not affect taxable profit in X6 and the taxation authorities did not adjust the tax base of the building to reflect the revaluation. In X6, the entity transferred 1,033 from revaluation reserve to retained earnings. This represents the difference of 1,590 between the actual depreciation on the building (3,250) and equivalent depreciation based on the cost of the building (1,660, which is the book value at 1/1/X6 of 33,200 divided by the remaining useful life of 20 years), less the related deferred tax of 557 (see paragraph 64 of the Standard). Current tax expense X5 X6 Accounting profit 8,775 8,740 Add Depreciation for accounting purposes 4,800 8,250 Charitable donations 500 350 Fine for environmental pollution 700 – Product development costs 250 250 Healthcare benefits 2,000 1,000 17,025 18,590 Deduct Depreciation for tax purposes (8,100) (11,850) Taxable Profit 8,925 6,740 Current tax expense at 40% 3,570 Current tax expense at 35% 2,359 Carrying amounts of property, plant and equipment Cost Building Motor Total vehicles Balance at 31/12/X4 50,000 10,000 60,000 Additions X5 6,000 – 6,000 Balance at 31/12/X5 56,000 10,000 66,000 Elimination of accumulated depreciation on revaluation at 1/1/X6 (22,800) – (22,800) Revaluation at 1/1/X6 31,800 – 31,800 Balance at 1/1/X6 65,000 10,000 75,000 Additions X6 – 15,000 15,000 65,000 25,000 90,000 continued... …continued Carrying amounts of property, plant and equipment Cost Building Motor Total vehicles Accumulated depreciation 5% 20% Balance at 31/12/X4 20,000 4,000 24,000 Depreciation X5 2,800 2,000 4,800 Balance at 31/12/X5 22,800 6,000 28,800 Revaluation at 1/1/X6 (22,800) – (22,800) Balance at 1/1/X6 – 6,000 6,000 Depreciation X6 3,250 5,000 8,250 Balance at 31/12/X6 3,250 11,000 14,250 Carrying amount 31/12/X4 30,000 6,000 36,000 31/12/X5 33,200 4,000 37,200 31/12/X6 61,750 14,000 75,750 Tax base of property, plant and equipment Cost Building Motor Total vehicles Balance at 31/12/X4 50,000 10,000 60,000 Additions X5 6,000 – 6,000 Balance at 31/12/X5 56,000 10,000 66,000 Additions X6 – 15,000 15,000 Balance at 31/12/X6 56,000 25,000 81,000 Accumulated depreciation 10% 25% Balance at 31/12/X4 40,000 5,000 45,000 Depreciation X5 5,600 2,500 8,100 Balance at 31/12/X5 45,600 7,500 53,100 Depreciation X6 5,600 6,250 11,850 Balance 31/12/X6 51,200 13,750 64,950 Tax base 31/12/X4 10,000 5,000 15,000 31/12/X5 10,400 2,500 12,900 31/12/X6 4,800 11,250 16,050 Deferred tax assets, liabilities and expense at 31/12/X4 Carrying Tax Temporary amount base differences Accounts receivable 500 500 – Inventory 2,000 2,000 – Product development costs 500 – 500 Investments 33,000 33,000 – Property, plant & equipment 36,000 15,000 21,000 TOTAL ASSETS 72,000 50,500 21,500 Current income taxes payable 3,000 3,000 – Accounts payable 500 500 – Fines payable – – – Liability for healthcare benefits – – – Long-term debt 20,000 20,000 – Deferred income taxes 8,600 8,600 – TOTAL LIABILITIES 32,100 32,100 Share capital 5,000 5,000 – Revaluation surplus – – – Retained earnings 34,900 13,400 TOTAL LIABILITIES/EQUITY 72,000 50,500 TEMPORARY DIFFERENCES 21,500 Deferred tax liability 21,500 at 40% 8,600 Deferred tax asset – – – Net deferred tax liability 8,600 Deferred tax assets, liabilities and expense at 31/12/X5 Carrying Tax Temporary amount base differences Accounts receivable 500 500 – Inventory 2,000 2,000 – Product development costs 250 – 250 Investments 33,000 33,000 – Property, plant & equipment 37,200 12,900 24,300 TOTAL ASSETS 72,950 48,400 24,550 Current income taxes payable 3,570 3,570 – Accounts payable 500 500 – Fines payable 700 700 – Liability for healthcare benefits 2,000 – (2,000) Long-term debt 12,475 12,475 – Deferred income taxes 9,020 9,020 TOTAL LIABILITIES 28,265 26,265 (2,000) Share capital 5,000 5,000 – Revaluation surplus – – – Retained earnings 39,685 17,135 TOTAL LIABILITIES/EQUITY 72,950 48,400 TEMPORARY DIFFERENCES 22,550 Deferred tax liability 24,550 at 40% 9,820 Deferred tax asset (2,000 at 40%) (800) Net deferred tax liability 9,020 Less: Opening deferred tax liability (8,600) Deferred tax expense (income) related to the origination and reversal of temporary differences 420 Deferred tax assets, liabilities and expense at 31/12/X6 Carrying Tax Temporary amount base differences Accounts receivable 500 500 – Inventory 2,000 2,000 – Product development costs – – – Investments 33,000 33,000 – Property, plant & equipment 75,750 16,050 59,700 TOTAL ASSETS 111,250 51,550 59,700 Current income taxes payable 2,359 2,359 – Accounts payable 500 500 – Fines payable 700 700 Liability for healthcare benefits 3,000 – (3,000) Long-term debt 12,805 12,805 – Deferred income taxes 19,845 19,845 – TOTAL LIABILITIES 39,209 36,209 (3,000) Share capital 5,000 5,000